Everything about Physical AI Systems

1. Key terms

Term	Definition
Cobot	Collaborative robot. An industrial arm designed to work alongside humans without safety cages. Force-limited joints stop on contact. ISO/TS 15066 defines the safety standard (now integrated into ISO 10218-2:2025).
AMR	Autonomous Mobile Robot. Navigates independently using onboard sensors and AI. No tracks, no guides. Warehouse bots, delivery robots, cleaning robots.
AGV	Automated Guided Vehicle. The predecessor to AMRs. Follows fixed paths (magnetic strips, painted lines). Being replaced by AMRs.
End effector	The tool at the end of a robot arm. Grippers, suction cups, welding torches, spray nozzles.
Payload	The maximum weight a robot can lift or carry. Cobots typically 3-25 kg. Industrial robots up to 2,300 kg.
DOF	Degrees of Freedom. SO-ARM101 is 6 DOF per arm. Humanoids range from 23-43+ DOF total.
Teleoperation	Controlling a robot remotely by a human in real time. Used in surgery (da Vinci), bomb disposal, deep-sea exploration.
RaaS	Robotics-as-a-Service. Subscription model instead of buying. ~$1,500/month per AMR is typical. No CapEx, includes maintenance.
FSD	Full Self-Driving. Tesla's autonomous driving stack. 8 cameras, neural networks, no LIDAR. Currently supervised (v14.3).
ADAS	Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems. Lane-keeping to full autonomy. SAE Levels 0-5.
Quadruped	A four-legged robot. Boston Dynamics Spot, Unitree Go2.
UAV	Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (drone). Consumer (DJI), enterprise (Skydio), or military (Anduril).
Fleet management	Software that coordinates multiple robots. Tasks, routes, charging, health.

2. The six categories

Every Physical AI system fits one of six form factors. Each uses the same hardware and software building blocks at different scales. The system type is determined by its form (shape), environment (where it operates), and primary task.

Six categories of complete Physical AI systems. Same hardware and software building blocks; different form factors and scales.

3. Arms and manipulators

Fixed to a surface, reach and grasp. From desk-scale learning arms to factory cobots and industrial heavy lifters.

System	Class	Payload	Price	Notes
SO-ARM101	Learning / hobby	~250g	~$300 assembled	Open-source 6-DOF arm. Feetech STS3215 servos. LeRobot ecosystem. The accessible starting point.
Universal Robots UR3e / UR5e / UR10e	Cobot	3 / 5 / 12.5 kg	$25-50K	The cobot market leader. Used by tens of thousands of factories.
FANUC CRX series	Cobot	5 / 10 / 20 / 25 kg	$30-60K	IEC 62443 cybersecurity certified. Force-limited joints.
ABB GoFa, YuMi	Cobot	5-12 kg / 0.5 kg dual-arm	$30-90K	YuMi is the dual-arm precision cobot for small-parts assembly.
KUKA LBR iiwa	Cobot	7-14 kg	$50-100K	7-axis. Sensitive force feedback. Research and medical applications.
Doosan, Techman, AUBO	Cobot	3-25 kg	$15-50K	Newer entrants. Aggressive pricing. AI-friendly SDKs.
FANUC, ABB, KUKA, Yaskawa industrials	Industrial	up to 2,300 kg	$50K-$500K+	The traditional factory robots. Caged for safety. Welding, painting, palletizing, heavy assembly.
Surgical (da Vinci, Versius, Hugo)	Specialized	Sub-mm precision	$1M+ system	Covered in section 8.

4. Mobile robots (AMRs)

Autonomous Mobile Robots navigate independently using onboard sensors and AI. No tracks, no magnetic strips. They map their environment, plan paths, and avoid obstacles in real time.

System	Vendor	Use case	Notes
Amazon Hercules, Sequoia, Sparrow, Cardinal	Amazon Robotics	Warehouse fulfillment	Largest robot fleet in the world. Omniverse libraries for simulation. PNW HQ.
Locus Origin	Locus Robotics	Warehouse picking assistance	RaaS model. Works with human pickers, not replaces them.
Boston Dynamics Stretch	Boston Dynamics	Case-handling, unloading trailers	Heavy-duty manipulation on a mobile base.
Fetch (Zebra)	Zebra Technologies	Warehouse automation	Acquired by Zebra in 2021.
Spot (Boston Dynamics)	Boston Dynamics	Inspection, security, research	The famous quadruped. ~$74,500 for the base unit.
Unitree Go2	Unitree	Research, inspection, education	~$2,800. 4D LIDAR L1 bundled. The accessible quadruped.
JetBot / JetRacer	NVIDIA Jetson community	Learning, autonomous-navigation experiments	$200-500 kits. Built on Jetson Nano / Orin Nano. Open-source.
Maximo (AES Corporation)	AES	Solar installation	Built on Isaac Sim + Omniverse. Completed 100 MW installation.
Aigen	Aigen	Agricultural weeding	Jetson Orin for real-time crop vs weed detection.

RaaS (Robotics-as-a-Service): typical pricing ~$1,500 / month per AMR. No upfront CapEx. Includes maintenance and software updates. The model that made AMRs accessible to small and mid-sized warehouses.

5. Autonomous vehicles

The most visible Physical AI category. Self-driving vehicles represent billions of dollars in real-world deployment, millions of miles of training data, and some of the most complex AI challenges.

Tesla (the Physical AI company)

Tesla described itself in its 2025 annual report as transitioning "from a hardware-centric business to a physical AI company." Three Physical AI products are active or launching:

FSD (Full Self-Driving) v14.3 (April 2026). End-to-end neural networks trained on data from millions of vehicles. v14.3 upgraded the RL stage for edge cases, enhanced the vision encoder for low-visibility, and cut inference latency by up to 20% via rewritten AI compiler. On Q1 2026 earnings, Musk said unsupervised FSD would reach customers "probably Q4" 2026.
Cybercab: purpose-built robotaxi with no steering wheel or pedals. Continuous production began at Giga Texas in April 2026 (first unit rolled off in February). Designed to comply with all existing FMVSS standards on its own (not subject to NHTSA's 2,500-vehicle annual cap for autonomous vehicles). Robotaxi service expanding to seven cities in H1 2026 (Dallas, Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Orlando, Tampa, Las Vegas) on top of Austin. Showcased at F1 Miami Grand Prix Fan Fest April 29 to May 3, 2026.
Optimus humanoid: Gen 3 unveiled Q1 2026 with updated hand design. AI5 inference chip taped out April 15, 2026 (deploys to Optimus and supercomputer clusters first, not vehicles). Integrates xAI's Grok for conversational AI; FSD-derived neural networks for physical movement. On April 2026 earnings call, Musk said Optimus will be "useful outside of Tesla sometime next year" (2027). Target unit price $25-30K.

Tesla AI: tesla.com/AI

Other autonomous vehicle players

Company	Focus	Status
Waymo (Alphabet)	Fully autonomous ride-hailing with LIDAR + cameras + radar	Commercial robotaxi service across multiple US cities. Most advanced AV permits in the US.
Zoox (Amazon)	Purpose-built robotaxi (no steering wheel)	Free rides in San Francisco. Amazon-backed.
Aurora Innovation	Self-driving trucks (Aurora Driver)	Public company. Commercial deployment with FedEx and others.
Mobileye (Intel)	Autonomous driving chips and software	Powers ADAS in 800+ vehicle models. Public.
Volvo Autonomous Solutions	Autonomous trucks and industrial vehicles	Active EU AI Act compliance for autonomous transport.
Cruise (GM)	Robotaxi	Restructured after incidents; pivoting to personal vehicle autonomy.
Caterpillar	Autonomous construction and mining equipment	NVIDIA platform for off-highway vehicles.

NHTSA FMVSS modernization (March 2026)

NHTSA proposed amendments to FMVSS 102 (transmission shift), 103 (defrosting), and 104 (wipers) on March 16, 2026 to except vehicles without manually operated driving controls from human-driver-centric requirements. Four more proposed rulemakings planned in 2026 covering indicators, telltales, warning lights, and lighting in ADS-only vehicles. Covered in depth in the Governance guide.

6. Humanoid robots

Two arms, two legs, designed to operate in human spaces using human tools. The most ambitious form factor and the one with the most aggressive investment in 2025-26.

Robot	Maker	DOF	Price / status	Notes
Unitree G1	Unitree (China)	23	$16,000 base, up to $73,900 fully configured	The cheapest full-featured humanoid. The reference embodiment for GR00T N1.7's whole-body control. 3D LIDAR + depth cameras.
Unitree H2	Unitree	31	$29,900 commercial / $40,900 EDU, shipping April 2026	182 cm tall, 70 kg. Unveiled October 2025. Mass production target ~20,000 units in 2026.
Figure 03	Figure AI	~30	~$20K target. Late-2026 limited deployment.	Home-focused. Helix VLA model. Wireless inductive charging (step onto a pad). 2x frame rate, 4x lower latency, 60% wider FOV per camera vs Figure 02. BotQ factory: 1 robot per hour, target 12,000 units / year.
Agility Digit	Agility Robotics	~22	Commercial deployment	Jetson AGX Thor on-board compute. Deployed in logistics facilities.
Boston Dynamics Atlas (electric)	Boston Dynamics	30+	Pre-commercial	Jetson Thor integration in 2026. Most agile humanoid demos.
1X NEO Gamma	1X Technologies	~30	Pre-commercial	GR00T N1 post-trained policy. Demonstrated autonomous domestic tidying at GTC.
AGIBOT (multiple)	AGIBOT	Various	Commercial	GR00T N + Cosmos. Industrial and consumer humanoids.
NEURA Robotics	NEURA	Various	Commercial	GR00T N + Cosmos + Isaac. Industrial deployment focus.
LG Home Robot	LG Electronics	Various	CES 2026	Built on Isaac Sim. Indoor household tasks.
Tesla Optimus	Tesla	~28	R&D ($25-30K target)	"Useful outside Tesla" delayed to 2027 per April 2026 earnings. xAI Grok for conversation, FSD-derived for movement. Targeted 1M units / year. SpaceX plans to send Optimus to Mars on Starship in late 2026.

Unitree market context: Plans to ship ~20,000 humanoid robots in 2026, almost 4x the 5,500 shipped in 2025. China aims for nationwide humanoid mass production by 2027.

7. Drones and aerial systems

Unmanned aerial systems. Consumer, enterprise, and defense.

Vendor	Segment	Notes
Skydio	Enterprise / public safety	Market leader in small UAS autonomy. Enterprise and government.
DJI	Consumer / enterprise	The dominant consumer drone maker. Mavic, Phantom, Inspire lines.
Anduril	Defense	Fury (CCA program), Roadrunner (counter-UAS), Ghost (ISR), Altius (loitering munitions), Barracuda-500M (cruise missile). $61B valuation post-May 2026 raise.
Shield AI	Defense (autonomy)	Hivemind autonomous piloting software. V-BAT and X-BAT aircraft.
Kratos Defense	Defense	Attritable drone systems. Public, $3B+ market cap.
Hermeus	Defense (hypersonic)	Hypersonic unmanned fighter jets. Raised $350M at $1B+ in April 2026.
Helsing	European defense	~$18B valuation. The European Anduril equivalent.
Aurora Flight Sciences (Boeing)	Mixed	Cargo and military autonomous aircraft.
Wing (Alphabet)	Commercial delivery	Delivery drone service in select US cities.
Zipline	Commercial delivery	Medical supplies in Africa and US. Fixed-wing autonomous.

8. Surgical and medical robots

Surgical robotics is the most mature and commercially proven Physical AI category. Global surgical robotics market projected to reach $14B by 2026.

Company	System	Status	Notes
Intuitive Surgical	da Vinci	FDA approved. Market leader.	Dominant. 9M+ procedures performed across urology, gynecology, thoracic, general surgery.
Medtronic	Hugo RAS	CE marked, expanding globally	Modular robotic-assisted surgery. Mobile carts, open console. Using NVIDIA Cosmos for simulation.
CMR Surgical	Versius	CE marked, public + private hospitals	Portable. Arm carts positioned as needed. Smaller operating rooms. Using NVIDIA Cosmos-H for training and validation.
J&J MedTech	Monarch Platform	Commercial	Endoscopy-focused. Isaac Sim and Cosmos post-training workflows.
Stryker	Mako	FDA approved, widely deployed	Orthopedic surgery (hip and knee replacements).
Zimmer Biomet	ROSA	FDA approved	Knee and brain surgery.
Moon Surgical	Maestro	FDA cleared (2025)	AI-powered laparoscopic surgery assistant. NVIDIA and J&J venture backed.
Edge Medical Robotics	(R&D)	Pre-commercial	AI-powered soft-tissue robots with real-time tactile sensing.

Beyond the operating room

Rehabilitation and exoskeletons: Ekso Bionics, ReWalk. ML-controlled actuators adjust resistance based on patient progress. Bridge between Physical AI and wearable tech.
Smart prosthetics: machine-learning prosthetic limbs that learn the wearer's movement patterns. Neural interfaces connecting prosthetics directly to the nervous system.
AI diagnostics: medical imaging AI (radiology, pathology, dermatology). Closer to software AI but increasingly running on edge hardware in clinics.

FDA pathways (510(k), De Novo, PMA, SaMD), GTC 2026 GR00T extension to surgical, and Medtronic's IGX Thor exploration are covered in the Governance guide and Landscape.

9. The grand composition (all layers unified)

Every system in this guide is built from the same four layers. The form factor and scale differ; the layers do not.

System	Hardware (sensors + compute + actuators)	Software (perception + decision)	Governance
SO-ARM101 (learning arm)	USB camera + Jetson Orin Nano + 6 Feetech STS3215 servos + 3D-printed PLA frame	YOLO26 perception + LeRobot imitation-learning policy	ISO 10218 (collaborative applications) applies once integrated into a production setting
Universal Robots UR5e cobot	Optional vision (camera-based) + integrated compute + 6 force-limited joints + steel frame	URCap apps + ROS2 Industrial + optional Isaac ROS perception	ISO 10218-2:2025 + EU Machinery Regulation + EU AI Act (high-risk if AI safety function)
Tesla Cybercab	8 cameras + Tesla HW4 / AI5 compute + electric motors + steel monocoque	FSD 14.3 end-to-end neural networks	NHTSA FMVSS (modernized 2026) + state DMV permits + crash reporting
Unitree G1 humanoid	3D LIDAR + depth cameras + Jetson Thor + 23 servo joints + carbon fiber + aluminum	GR00T N1.7 VLA whole-body control	ISO 13482 (personal care) + no humanoid-specific standard yet
Waymo robotaxi	LIDAR + cameras + radar + onboard compute + electric vehicle platform	Proprietary perception + planning + Cosmos-Reason-style world model	NHTSA + state AV permits + CA DMV disengagement reporting + safety case methodology
Anduril Fury (CCA)	Multi-sensor + Lattice compute + jet propulsion + aerospace alloys	Shield AI Hivemind autonomous piloting	DoD Responsible AI Strategy + EU AI Act military exemption + ICRC autonomous weapons concerns
Intuitive da Vinci	Endoscope + 4K cameras + dedicated compute + 4 articulated arms + titanium tools	Teleoperation + AI-assisted vision (post-training with Cosmos)	FDA 510(k) approval + SaMD guidance + EU AI Act (high-risk medical device, applies Aug 2028)